Who Founded Taoism? The Legacy of Laozi and Zhuangzi

Taoism stands as a profound and influential philosophical and religious tradition deeply rooted in Chinese culture.¹ At its core lie the teachings and legacies of Laozi and Zhuangzi, two figures often regarded as the foundational pillars of this ancient wisdom tradition.³ While the term “founder” might suggest a singular originator, the emergence of Taoism is more accurately understood through the intertwined contributions of these two seminal thinkers.³ The precise historical role of Laozi, in particular, is a subject of ongoing scholarly debate, adding layers of complexity to the question of Taoism’s origins.² Furthermore, Taoism manifests in two primary forms: as a philosophical school (Daojia) and as a religious tradition (Daojiao), each potentially offering different perspectives on the roles of Laozi and Zhuangzi.¹ The multifaceted nature of Taoism necessitates a comprehensive exploration of the lives, philosophies, and enduring impacts of both Laozi and Zhuangzi to fully appreciate their legacy.

The Enigmatic Figure of Laozi

Traditionally, Laozi is revered as the primary founder of Taoism and is closely associated with what is often termed “original” or “primordial” Taoism.¹² Traditional accounts depict him as a learned scholar who held the esteemed position of Keeper of the Archives in the royal court of the Zhou Dynasty.¹² This role purportedly granted him access to the wisdom and writings of the Yellow Emperor and other classical texts of that era.¹² Legend recounts an encounter between Laozi and Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, with the Zhuangzi notably featuring several variations of this meeting.¹² As the Zhou Dynasty began its decline, traditional narratives suggest that Laozi, weary of the moral decay, embarked on a westward journey at the age of eighty.¹² At the western gate, he was recognized by the guard Yinxi, who implored the old master to record his wisdom for the benefit of the country before departing. In response to this request, Laozi is said to have composed the Tao Te Ching (also known as the Daodejing) in a single session.¹² While his traditional lifespan is placed in the 6th century BC, some historical accounts suggest dates in the 4th or 5th century BC.¹³ The very name “Laozi” is not believed to be a personal name but rather an honorific title signifying “Old Master” or “Venerable One”.² Traditional accounts, however, do offer a personal name, Li Er, and an appellation, Dan.¹³

Despite the rich traditional narratives surrounding Laozi, modern scholarship presents a more nuanced perspective, with many scholars expressing skepticism about his existence as a historical individual.² Some propose that the figure of “Laozi” might represent a symbolic sage, embodying a collection of ancient wisdom and philosophical ideas, rather than a single, historically verifiable person.² The primary source for Laozi’s traditional biography is Sima Qian’s Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), written around 100 BCE, which itself relied on earlier, potentially legendary, accounts.¹² The lack of contemporary evidence outside these later records has fueled the debate, with some scholars suggesting that the Laozi figure may have been a later invention by followers or compilers of the Tao Te Ching to lend authority to the text.¹³

The Tao Te Ching, the foundational text of Taoism, is traditionally ascribed to Laozi.² However, its authorship has been a subject of scholarly discussion, with theories suggesting possible collaboration or the work of multiple authors over time.¹³ The text is dated by scholars to a range between the 8th and 3rd centuries BC, with the Warring States period (c. 475 – 221 BC) considered a likely period of compilation.¹² Archaeological discoveries, such as the Guodian bamboo slips dating to the late 4th century BC, provide tangible evidence of the text’s existence and its compilation process over an extended period.² It is important to note that in ancient China, books were often referred to by the name of their attributed author, which explains why the Tao Te Ching is also commonly known as the Laozi.²⁸

The uncertainty surrounding Laozi’s existence and the authorship of the Tao Te Ching implies that the origins of Taoism might lie in a broader collection of wisdom or a philosophical movement rather than solely in the teachings of a single, historically confirmed individual. The very concept of “Laozi” could potentially represent a venerable figurehead for a developing tradition. Furthermore, the dating of the Tao Te Ching to the Warring States period, a time marked by significant social and political turmoil ¹⁶, offers a crucial historical backdrop for understanding its core messages. The text’s emphasis on harmony, non-action, and simplicity can be interpreted as philosophical responses to the pervasive chaos and conflict of that era, suggesting a path towards stability and inner peace through alignment with the natural order.

The Core Philosophy of Laozi

At the heart of Laozi’s teachings lies the profound concept of the Tao, often translated as “the Way”.¹ The Tao is considered the fundamental principle that underlies all existence, often described as ineffable, mysterious, and the origin of all creation.¹ It is perceived as both nameless and the source from which all named things arise.⁴⁸ A central tenet of Laozi’s philosophy is the importance of aligning oneself with the natural flow of the Tao to achieve a fulfilling and harmonious life.⁵

A cornerstone of Laozi’s thought is the principle of Wuwei, often translated as “non-action” or “effortless action”.² It is crucial to understand that Wuwei does not advocate complete passivity but rather encourages skillful and spontaneous action that aligns with the natural flow of the Tao, avoiding the imposition of one’s will against the inherent order of things.² This principle also extends to governance, with Laozi suggesting that the best way to rule is through minimal interference, allowing things to take their natural course.¹³

Beyond the Tao and Wuwei, Laozi’s philosophy emphasizes several other key tenets. Simplicity is highly valued, advocating for a life free from excessive desires and material attachments.¹ Naturalness (Ziran) is another crucial aspect, urging individuals to align themselves with the spontaneous and inherent order of the universe.² Humility is also underscored as a virtue, encouraging the avoidance of arrogance and the cultivation of a modest perspective.¹ Furthermore, the Tao Te Ching introduces the concept of the Three Treasures: compassion, frugality, and humility, as fundamental virtues to cultivate.¹

Laozi’s philosophy, as articulated in the Tao Te Ching, presents a practical pathway for achieving harmony with the universe. It emphasizes a seemingly passive yet ultimately effective approach to both personal life and governance, suggesting that by aligning with the inherent order of the cosmos, individuals and societies can find true power and fulfillment without resorting to forceful or unnatural actions. Moreover, the Tao Te Ching’s focus on “returning to the root” ⁷⁷ and the cyclical nature of existence ⁴² reveals a profound understanding of impermanence and the interconnectedness of all phenomena. This cyclical perspective encourages acceptance of the continuous flow of change and a detachment from rigid viewpoints or desires, fostering a sense of inner peace amidst the ever-shifting realities of life.

Zhuangzi: The Second Pillar of Taoism

Zhuangzi, also known as Zhuang Zhou, emerges as the second pivotal figure in the development of philosophical Taoism.¹ Living around the 4th century BC during the latter part of the Warring States period, Zhuangzi was born in the state of Song and initially served as a minor town official.⁶ He held a deep affinity for the views of Laozi and was known for his satirical critique of Confucianism and its emphasis on rigid social structures.⁴ Choosing a path of seclusion, Zhuangzi rejected the allure of officialdom and dedicated himself to a life in harmony with nature.⁶ The name “Zhuangzi” itself is an honorific, meaning “Master Zhuang”.⁸²

The Zhuangzi is not a single, unified treatise but rather a rich compilation of writings attributed to Zhuangzi himself and his later followers.⁸² The text is traditionally divided into three sections: the Inner Chapters, believed to represent the core teachings of Zhuangzi; the Outer Chapters; and the Miscellaneous Chapters.¹² What distinguishes the Zhuangzi is its unique and engaging literary style, characterized by a wealth of anecdotes, parables, humor, and satire, used to convey profound philosophical insights.⁴ The Zhuangzi is highly regarded as one of the greatest works of literature within the Classical Chinese canon.⁸²

Living during the turbulent Warring States period, Zhuangzi’s philosophy likely emerged as a response to the prevailing social and political instability. His teachings emphasize the importance of individual freedom and detachment from the artificial constraints of societal norms as the path to true spiritual liberation. Unlike the focus on worldly order and social duty prevalent in other schools of thought, Zhuangzi advocated for a more personal and introspective approach to finding harmony and peace. The Zhuangzi’s distinctive literary style, rich with engaging stories and subtle humor, serves as a powerful tool for conveying its profound philosophical insights. This approach makes complex ideas more accessible and encourages readers to actively question their preconceived notions and explore the world from different perspectives, contrasting with the often more direct and at times paradoxical style of the Tao Te Ching.

The Distinctive Philosophy of Zhuangzi

A central aspect of Zhuangzi’s philosophy is the emphasis on the relativity of perspectives, suggesting that truth and values are not absolute but depend on context and individual viewpoint.⁵ This concept is famously illustrated in the parable of the “Butterfly Dream,” where Zhuangzi questions the very nature of reality and the reliability of our perceptions by pondering whether he is a man dreaming of being a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming of being a man.⁴ Zhuangzi critiques rigid distinctions and advocates for a fluid and flexible mode of understanding that acknowledges the continuous transformation between seemingly opposing forces.²²

Another key aspect of Zhuangzi’s thought is the concept of “Wandering Freely” (Xiaoyao You), which serves as a metaphor for freeing oneself from societal constraints and embracing the boundless possibilities offered by the natural world.⁵⁷ This involves letting go of fixed perspectives and adapting to the constant flux of change, allowing life to unfold naturally without the imposition of rigid control.⁵⁷ Zhuangzi champions the ideal of the “Authentic Person,” an individual who lives in profound harmony with nature and has transcended the limiting confines of dualistic distinctions.⁵⁷

Zhuangzi places a significant emphasis on spontaneity and the acceptance of change as intrinsic to the natural order.⁴ He views life as an ongoing and ceaseless transformation of the Dao, where concepts of good and evil, better and worse, hold no ultimate or inherent meaning.⁵⁷ Even death is seen as a natural part of this continuous cycle of transformation, to be accepted rather than feared.³

Zhuangzi’s philosophy offers a radical departure from conventional thought, challenging the certainty of knowledge and the fixity of reality. By highlighting the inherent limitations of human reason and the subjective nature of perception, he encourages a shift towards a more intuitive and experiential engagement with the Dao. The concept of “wandering freely” embodies a profound liberation, advocating for not only a physical retreat from the constraints of society but also a deep mental and spiritual emancipation from the shackles of conventional thought and restrictive value systems, allowing for a truly authentic and spontaneous existence.

Similarities and Differences in the Philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi

Despite their individual nuances, the philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi share a common foundation in several key beliefs and core concepts. Both thinkers ground their teachings in the concept of the Tao as the fundamental origin and underlying principle governing the entirety of the universe.² They both advocate for the principle of Wuwei, or non-action, as the optimal way to live in harmony with the Tao, emphasizing effortless action aligned with the natural order rather than forceful intervention.² Furthermore, both philosophies underscore the importance of living with naturalness and simplicity, free from the complexities and artificialities of societal constructs.¹ Notably, both Laozi and Zhuangzi express a critical stance towards Confucianism, particularly its emphasis on elaborate rituals and adherence to strict social propriety.⁴

Despite these shared foundational principles, Laozi and Zhuangzi exhibit contrasting approaches and philosophical emphases. Laozi’s teachings often focus on the art of governance and provide guidance for the ruler, advocating for a restrained and minimal approach to statecraft.⁹ In contrast, Zhuangzi’s philosophy centers more on the individual, emphasizing personal freedom, spiritual liberation, and the cultivation of inner harmony irrespective of societal roles.⁹ Their literary styles also differ significantly; Laozi employs concise and often poetic language, filled with paradoxes to convey his wisdom.⁴ Zhuangzi, on the other hand, favors a more elaborate and often humorous style, utilizing a rich tapestry of parables, anecdotes, and allegories to illustrate his philosophical points.⁴ Furthermore, Zhuangzi demonstrates a more pronounced skepticism and philosophical relativism in his writings compared to the more grounded ethical and political focus found in the Tao Te Ching.⁷¹ The relationship between Laozi and Zhuangzi has also been a subject of scholarly debate, with varying opinions on whether Zhuangzi was a direct follower, an independent thinker drawing from similar sources, or even if he was familiar with the Tao Te Ching as we know it today.²

While both Laozi and Zhuangzi share fundamental Taoist principles, their distinct focuses and literary styles allowed them to resonate with different aspects of human experience and potentially reach diverse audiences. Laozi’s more direct and politically relevant teachings might have appealed to those concerned with societal order, while Zhuangzi’s emphasis on individual freedom and his imaginative storytelling likely resonated with intellectuals and those seeking a more personal and perhaps even escapist path to spiritual understanding. The satirical portrayal of Confucius in the Zhuangzi further highlights a key difference in their approaches, underscoring Taoism’s preference for natural spontaneity over the structured and ritualized practices advocated by Confucianism.

The Enduring Legacy and Influence of Laozi and Zhuangzi

The legacies of Laozi and Zhuangzi have profoundly shaped the development of philosophical Taoism (Daojia), establishing them as foundational figures in this intellectual tradition.¹ The intertwined philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi are often referred to collectively as “Lao-Zhuang” philosophy, representing a significant and enduring intellectual tradition within Chinese thought.⁶ Their ideas have profoundly influenced later Chinese thinkers and philosophical movements, most notably the Neo-Daoist school (Xuanxue) which flourished between the third and sixth centuries CE.²

In the realm of religious Taoism (Daojiao), Laozi is often venerated as a supreme deity, sometimes even seen as a personification of the Dao itself.² Legend recounts his appearance to Zhang Daoling, the founder of the influential Celestial Masters school, marking a significant moment in the development of organized religious Taoism.¹² The Tao Te Ching holds immense reverence as a foundational scripture within religious Taoism, guiding spiritual practices and beliefs.² Zhuangzi’s influence is particularly notable in Taoist meditation practices, with the concept of “sitting and forgetting” (Zuowang) being a significant contribution to the tradition’s contemplative techniques.⁶⁵

The impact of Laozi and Zhuangzi extends far beyond the formal boundaries of Taoist philosophy and religion. Their ideas have deeply permeated Chinese culture, influencing art, literature, and poetry for millennia.² Their philosophies have also interacted and syncretized with both Confucianism and Buddhism, creating a rich tapestry of Chinese thought and practice.¹ Even martial arts like Tai Chi find their roots in Taoist principles.²⁶

Conclusion

In conclusion, while the historical figure of Laozi remains shrouded in some mystery, his traditional role as the originator of Taoism and the attributed author of the Tao Te Ching is undeniable in shaping the tradition’s core philosophical tenets. Zhuangzi, building upon and expanding these foundations with his unique literary style and emphasis on individual freedom and the relativity of perspectives, stands as the second essential pillar of Taoist thought. Their contrasting yet complementary philosophies have not only defined the trajectory of Taoism as both a philosophical school and a religious practice but have also left an indelible mark on the broader landscape of Chinese culture, art, and intellectual history. Despite ongoing scholarly debates surrounding their historicity and the precise interpretation of their works, the enduring legacy of Laozi and Zhuangzi continues to inspire and inform individuals seeking wisdom and harmony in a complex world.

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126. The Religiousness of Cultivation in the Zhuangzi: “The Unity of Self” of Zuowang 坐忘 – MDPI, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/5/612
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143. Dharma and the Tao: how Buddhism and Daoism have influenced each other; Why Zen and Taoism can be complementary – Buddha Weekly: Buddhist Practices, Mindfulness, Meditation, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://buddhaweekly.com/dharma-and-the-tao-how-buddhism-and-daoism-have-influenced-each-other-why-zen-and-taoism-can-be-compliementary/
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161. Three Religions | Chinese religious movement | Britannica, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/topic/Three-Religions
162. The Confusing World of Chinese Syncretism – Reformed Baptist Christian Blogger, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://reformedbaptistchristianblogger.wordpress.com/2023/01/20/the-confusing-world-of-chinese-syncretism/
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165. Is it bad to syncretize Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1abctd0/is_it_bad_to_syncretize_buddhism_confucianism_and/
166. Harmonizing Wisdom: Exploring the Synchronicity of Taoism and Maitreya Buddhism in Indonesia’s Pluralistic Tapestry – Jurnal Smaratungga, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://journal.smaratungga.ac.id/index.php/jsb/article/download/103/51/
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