How Taoism Differs from Buddhism and Confucianism?

I. Introduction

Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism represent three major philosophical and religious traditions that have profoundly shaped the cultural, social, and political landscapes of China and East Asia for millennia.¹ Originating in ancient China and India, respectively, these traditions offer distinct perspectives on the nature of reality, the human condition, and the path to a fulfilling life. Taoism, indigenous to China, emphasizes harmony with the Tao, an enigmatic process of transformation underlying all reality.⁴ It encompasses a diverse range of practices, from philosophical contemplation to religious rituals aimed at self-cultivation and a deeper appreciation of the Tao.⁴ Buddhism, originating with Siddhartha Gautama in India, focuses on overcoming suffering and achieving enlightenment (Nirvana) through practices such as meditation and ethical conduct.⁵ Spreading across Asia, Buddhism adapted to various cultures, including China, where it interacted with existing traditions.⁶ Confucianism, rooted in the teachings of Confucius, is a philosophy and ethical system centered on social harmony, morality, and the cultivation of virtue within the framework of social relationships.² Its emphasis on ethical living and moral leadership has exerted a lasting influence on various aspects of life and governance in East Asian societies.² Despite their distinct origins and core tenets, these three traditions have coexisted and interacted throughout history, influencing and borrowing from one another.¹⁰ This report aims to elucidate the key differences between Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism across fundamental aspects of their teachings and practices, providing a comprehensive understanding of their unique contributions to Eastern thought.

II. Core Principles and Foundational Texts

Taoism’s central tenet is the concept of the Tao (or Dao), often translated as “the Way,” “path,” or “road”.¹ The Tao is considered the fundamental, ineffable principle that underlies all reality, an enigmatic and transformative process that is the source and order of the universe.⁴ It is not viewed as a personal god but rather as the natural order that spontaneously generates the myriad things of the universe.¹⁶ A key principle in Taoism is Wu Wei, often described as “non-action” or “effortless action”.¹⁵ Wu Wei does not imply passivity but rather acting in accordance with the natural flow of life and the Tao, without unnecessary force or interference.¹⁴ This principle emphasizes skillful and spontaneous action aligned with the natural order.¹⁴ Another fundamental concept in Taoism is Yin and Yang, representing the complementary and interdependent dualistic forces that constitute all phenomena in the universe.¹ Maintaining balance and harmony between these opposing yet interconnected forces is crucial in the Taoist worldview.¹ The foundational text of Taoism is the Tao Te Ching, attributed to Lao Tzu, which offers aphoristic principles for achieving daily contentment and living in accordance with the Tao.¹ The Zhuangzi is another fundamental text that further develops Taoist philosophy through anecdotes and allegories.⁴

Buddhism’s core teachings are encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths, which describe the nature of suffering and the path to its cessation.⁵ The First Noble Truth (Dukkha) acknowledges that suffering is an inherent aspect of life, encompassing physical pain, emotional distress, and existential unease.⁵ The Second Noble Truth (Samudaya) identifies the origin of suffering as craving, desire, and attachment to impermanent things.⁷ The Third Noble Truth (Nirodha) states that suffering can be overcome and ended by letting go of desire and attachment, achieving a state of liberation known as Nirvana.⁵ The Fourth Noble Truth (Magga) presents the Eightfold Path as the means to end suffering, a practical guide encompassing right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.⁵ These eight aspects are often categorized into wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.²⁷ Central to the Buddhist worldview are the concepts of Karma, the law of cause and effect where actions have consequences, and Samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.⁷ The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to escape this cycle and attain Nirvana.⁷ The Tripitaka (Pali Canon) serves as a primary collection of Buddha’s teachings and monastic rules, though a diverse range of scriptures exists across different Buddhist schools.⁵

Confucianism’s foundational principle is Ren, often translated as benevolence or humaneness, which embodies compassion, empathy, and kindness towards others.⁹ Ren is considered the highest Confucian virtue, essential for fostering harmonious relationships and promoting social order.⁴⁴ Li, which translates to ritual or propriety, refers to the proper conduct, etiquette, and rituals that govern social interactions and maintain harmony within society.⁹ Adherence to Li is seen as crucial for cultivating self-discipline and upholding social order.⁴⁴ Xiao, or filial piety, is another central virtue in Confucianism, emphasizing respect, obedience, and care for one’s parents and ancestors.⁹ Xiao is considered fundamental to a harmonious family and, by extension, a harmonious society.⁹ The Junzi, or the superior person, represents the Confucian ideal of a morally cultivated individual who embodies virtues such as Ren, Li, and Yi (righteousness), serving as a moral exemplar for others.⁹ The primary text containing the teachings of Confucius is the Analects (Lunyu), a collection of his sayings and dialogues compiled by his disciples.⁴⁴ Other foundational texts include the Five Classics and the Four Books, which form the basis of Confucian scholarship and education.⁴⁷

III. Views on Nature and the Universe

Taoism places a strong emphasis on living in harmony with nature, considering it a fundamental principle.¹ Nature is viewed as an uncorrupted manifestation of the Heavens, serving as a model for human conduct.²³ Humanity is seen as an integral part of this natural world, and Taoism advocates for a way of life that respects and mirrors the effortless flow and inherent wisdom of the natural environment.²⁰ The Tao itself is considered the underlying principle and guiding force of the universe, a natural order or “way of heaven”.¹ The universe is believed to arise spontaneously from the Tao, which is not a creator deity but an impersonal, eternal process of transformation.⁴ Interestingly, Taoism also describes nature as “unkind,” treating all creation impartially.²³ This perspective suggests a need for individuals to find their own path and way within this natural order, highlighting a sense of self-reliance and adaptation.

Buddhism’s view of nature centers on the impermanent nature of all compounded things (Anicca).⁵ The understanding that everything is constantly changing leads to the Buddhist insight that attachment to these transient things is a primary cause of suffering.⁵ Another key aspect of the Buddhist worldview is the interconnectedness of all phenomena (dependent origination).⁷ This principle emphasizes that nothing exists in isolation and implies a sense of universal responsibility and compassion.⁷ The concept of emptiness (Sunyata) further suggests that phenomena lack inherent, independent existence or self-nature (Anatta).⁷ This profound philosophical concept distinguishes Buddhism from many other traditions, including the Taoist concept of the Tao as a generative force.⁶⁸

Confucianism views nature primarily as a moral order, often referred to as Tian (Heaven), which provides a framework for human conduct and the establishment of social harmony.² The “Way of Heaven” (Tian Tao) is seen as the fundamental order of the world and the ultimate source of divine authority.⁹ Confucianism emphasizes the active role of humans in maintaining both cosmic and social order through the practice of rituals and adherence to moral behavior.⁹ While Confucianism acknowledges and respects nature, its primary concern lies within the human realm and society, focusing on human relationships and the creation of a well-ordered state rather than an in-depth exploration of the natural world for its own sake.¹⁷ It underscores the importance of understanding natural laws as a means to align human will with the universe, a harmony achieved through moral cultivation and adherence to established social norms.¹⁴

IV. The Concept of Self

In Taoism, there is an emphasis on aligning with one’s true, natural self (Ziran) and living authentically.¹⁸ This involves embracing spontaneity and simplicity in one’s actions and thoughts.¹⁸ Taoism suggests that humans are naturally harmonious at birth but deviate from this state due to social conditioning.⁴³ Therefore, the cultivation of oneself in Taoism aims to return to this natural mode of existence, thereby achieving a harmonious state.⁴³ This path values individuality and self-expression as essential components of a fulfilling life.⁴² The process involves a form of “unlearning” societal constraints to rediscover and embrace one’s genuine self.¹³

Buddhism presents a fundamentally different understanding of the self with the doctrine of Anatta (non-self).⁵ This doctrine asserts that there is no permanent, unchanging soul or essence within living beings.⁵ Instead, what is commonly perceived as the “self” is merely a temporary aggregation of five impermanent components known as Khandhas: physical forms, feelings, ideations, dispositions, and consciousness.⁵ This denial of a permanent self is a distinguishing feature of Buddhism, contrasting with the concepts of self found in both Taoism and Confucianism. The ultimate aim in Buddhism is to transcend this illusory individual self to end suffering and break free from the cycle of rebirth.⁷ Liberation (Nirvana) is understood as the realization of the emptiness of this constructed self.⁷

Confucianism views the self as inherently social, with an individual’s identity largely derived from their interactions and conduct within the broader human community.⁴⁵ The Confucian self is defined by the roles and responsibilities held within society, particularly within the family structure.⁹ A central focus in Confucianism is the concept of self-cultivation, which involves the continuous improvement of oneself through learning, moral development, and the practice of virtues.⁴ The ultimate goal of this self-cultivation is to become a Junzi, or superior person, who embodies moral integrity, wisdom, and leadership, serving as an ethical example for others.⁹

V. Purpose of Life and Ultimate Goals

In Taoism, the primary purpose of life is to achieve contentment and live in harmony with the Tao.¹ This involves embracing life’s natural flow and finding peace and balance by aligning oneself with the fundamental principle governing the universe.¹ Taoism emphasizes the importance of living in each moment, following one’s individual “Tao” or path through life, and recognizing that striving against this natural course leads to unhappiness.⁸² Rather than focusing on external goals, Taoism stresses that the meaning of life arises from the living itself, the path one travels, and the full and enthusiastic embrace of each moment.⁸³ Furthermore, some branches of Taoism also pursue the goal of longevity, and in some cases, even physical immortality, through various practices of self-cultivation, including alchemy, meditation, and the use of natural resources to purify the mind and spirit.¹ This pursuit of transcending the natural limits of human life distinguishes Taoism from the other two traditions.

The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to attain Nirvana, a state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara).⁵ Nirvana is achieved by eliminating the root causes of suffering, which are identified as craving, attachment, and ignorance.⁷ This state of enlightenment represents a profound understanding of reality, characterized by freedom from needless suffering and a state of being fully alive and present.⁵ In Mahayana Buddhism, a significant aspiration is the Bodhisattva ideal, where individuals not only seek their own enlightenment but also dedicate themselves to working for the liberation of all sentient beings.⁷ This path involves a commitment to compassion and a willingness to delay one’s own Nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment.⁶

In Confucianism, the primary focus of life is on living a morally upright and virtuous existence to contribute to the creation and maintenance of a harmonious society within this world.² Confucianism is deeply concerned with social ethics and the cultivation of virtue through proper conduct within the framework of human relationships and societal roles.² The ideal in Confucianism is to become a Junzi, or superior person, through a process of continuous self-cultivation and the diligent practice of key virtues such as Ren (benevolence), Li (propriety), Yi (righteousness), Zhi (wisdom), and Xin (sincerity).⁹ Some within the Confucian tradition also aspire to achieve the state of Sagehood (Shengren), representing a higher level of moral and intellectual perfection attainable through lifelong learning and dedicated self-improvement.⁸¹ Ultimately, Confucianism emphasizes the perfectibility of individuals through both personal and communal efforts, aiming to create a morally organized and harmonious world.¹¹

VI. Social Order, Governance, and Ethics

Taoism generally favors a philosophy of minimal intervention in both society and governance, advocating for a more laissez-faire approach that aligns with the natural order of the Tao.⁴ The ideal ruler, in Taoist thought, governs in such a way that the people are hardly aware of their presence, allowing things to unfold naturally.²⁰ This perspective stems from the belief that excessive government and the imposition of artificial rules can often lead to tyranny and injustice, even when intentions are good.⁸⁹ Taoist ethical principles are deeply rooted in the concept of living naturally and effortlessly, embracing simplicity, spontaneity, and humility.⁴ Morality in Taoism is less about adhering to a strict set of rules and more about following one’s true nature in accordance with the Tao, seeking balance and harmony within oneself and the world.⁴¹

Buddhism places a strong emphasis on personal ethics grounded in the principles of non-harming (Ahimsa), compassion, and non-violence.⁵ The Five Precepts, which include abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxicants, serve as a fundamental ethical code for lay practitioners.⁵ Buddhist ethics are primarily focused on reducing suffering for both oneself and others through mindful actions and intentions.⁵ The monastic order (Sangha) plays a crucial role in Buddhism, providing a structured community dedicated to spiritual practice, the preservation of teachings, and the upholding of ethical conduct.⁶

Confucianism advocates for a hierarchical social order based on clearly defined roles and the principle of mutual obligations, most notably expressed in the five key relationships: ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend.⁹ Maintaining social order and harmony is paramount, and this is achieved through individuals fulfilling their respective roles with virtue and propriety.⁹ Confucianism emphasizes that governance should be rooted in the moral uprightness of the ruler and government officials, who are expected to lead by example and prioritize the well-being of their subjects.⁹ Meritocracy, with the selection of officials based on their moral qualities and competence, is also a key aspect of Confucian ideals of governance.⁹ Confucian ethical principles are primarily centered on the cultivation of virtues such as Ren (benevolence), Li (propriety), Yi (righteousness), Zhi (wisdom), and Xin (sincerity), which guide personal conduct and all social interactions.⁹ Rituals (Li) play a significant role in shaping ethical behavior and maintaining social cohesion by providing a framework for proper conduct in various social situations.⁹

VII. The Nature and Resolution of Suffering

Buddhism views suffering (Dukkha) as a fundamental and inherent characteristic of existence, arising from the impermanent and ultimately unsatisfying nature of life.⁵ This suffering is not seen as a form of punishment but rather as a realistic perspective on the human condition.⁵ The origin of this suffering (Samudaya) is identified as craving, desire, and attachment to things that are by nature impermanent.⁷ Buddhism teaches that suffering can be ended (Nirodha) by eliminating these cravings and attachments.⁵ The path to achieving this end is the Noble Eightfold Path (Magga), providing a practical framework for ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.⁵

In Taoism, suffering is often understood as a consequence of deviating from the natural flow of the Tao and living in disharmony with the natural world.¹ Taoism suggests that when individuals strive against their natural path or become overly attached to outcomes, they create unhappiness and suffering.⁸² The resolution to suffering in Taoism lies in finding balance between Yin and Yang, accepting the cyclical nature of life, and practicing Wu Wei, or effortless action, which involves aligning oneself with the natural order of the universe.¹ Taoism emphasizes the importance of adaptability and resilience in navigating the challenges and hardships of life, suggesting that by flowing with the Tao, one can ease suffering.⁴²

Confucianism views suffering as something that can arise from a lack of virtue within individuals, disorder within society, and the failure of people to properly fulfill their prescribed social roles and responsibilities.² Inability to realize one’s moral ideals is also considered a form of suffering in the Confucian perspective.⁹⁷ The path to resolving suffering in Confucianism involves self-cultivation, the pursuit of education, adherence to rituals (Li), and the development of core virtues such as Ren (benevolence) and Yi (righteousness).⁹ By engaging in proper conduct, fulfilling one’s social duties, and striving to become a virtuous individual (Junzi), Confucianism suggests that suffering can be minimized and a harmonious society achieved.⁹

VIII. Enlightenment and Spiritual Attainment

Enlightenment in Taoism involves realizing a profound oneness with the Tao, experiencing the fundamental unity that underlies all of existence.¹³ This state is often described as a return to the source, a deep understanding and alignment with the natural flow and underlying principle of the universe.¹ Practices such as meditation and inner alchemy are employed within Taoism to cultivate this realization, aiming to harmonize one’s inner energy (Qi) with the Tao.¹

In Buddhism, enlightenment, known as Nirvana or Buddhahood, is the ultimate spiritual attainment, representing liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth (Samsara).⁵ It is a state of profound understanding of reality, marked by the realization of impermanence and emptiness.⁵ Nirvana is often described as the “extinguishing” of the fundamental causes of suffering: desire, hatred, and ignorance.⁷ This state is achieved through dedicated practices such as meditation, mindfulness, and ethical conduct, following the principles of the Noble Eightfold Path.⁵ These practices aim to purify the mind, develop wisdom, and cultivate compassion.²⁷

Confucianism focuses on achieving Sagehood (Shengren), which represents a state of moral and intellectual perfection attained through a lifelong commitment to learning and self-cultivation.⁹ The Junzi, or superior person, is considered to be on the path towards this ultimate state of Sagehood.⁹ Confucian enlightenment is less about a transcendent experience and more about realizing one’s full moral and intellectual potential within the context of society.⁹ It emphasizes the importance of achieving a unity between the individual self and Tian (Heaven) by understanding and embodying the inherent moral order of the universe.⁹ This pursuit of Sagehood involves striving for harmony between humanity and the cosmos through ethical living and the maintenance of social order.⁹

IX. Historical Interactions and Syncretism

Throughout history, Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism have coexisted and interacted within China, leading to periods of both influence and syncretism.¹ These traditions have often complemented each other, addressing different aspects of life and spirituality, while also experiencing periods of conflict and competition for influence.¹² A significant example of this interaction is the development of Neo-Confucianism, a philosophical movement that emerged during the Song Dynasty and incorporated metaphysical and cosmological elements from both Taoist and Buddhist thought.³ Neo-Confucian thinkers sought to revitalize Confucianism by addressing questions of cosmology and human nature that had been highlighted by Taoism and Buddhism, leading to a synthesis of these three traditions.³

The influence of Taoism on Chan (Zen) Buddhism is also notable, particularly in the emphasis on direct experience, intuition, and a focus on the present moment.¹¹ Zen Buddhism, which emphasizes meditation and a non-conceptual understanding of reality, shares significant similarities with Taoism’s principles of naturalness and spontaneity.¹¹ Throughout Chinese history, it has been common for individuals to practice a blend of these three traditions, often referred to collectively as the “Three Teachings”.¹¹ This blending reflects a pragmatic approach to incorporating different spiritual and philosophical perspectives into one’s life.¹¹ Furthermore, the existence of syncretic sects, such as the Sanyi teaching during the Ming Dynasty, which explicitly combined Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist beliefs for self-cultivation, demonstrates the ongoing desire to integrate these influential traditions.⁸⁹

X. Conclusion

Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, while sharing a historical and cultural context in East Asia, exhibit fundamental differences in their core principles, worldviews, and ultimate goals. Taoism emphasizes harmony with the Tao, a natural, ineffable order, advocating for effortless action (Wu Wei) and embracing spontaneity.⁴ Its view of nature is one of a dynamic, impersonal force with which humans should align, and its concept of self stresses authenticity and naturalness.¹⁸ The purpose of life in Taoism is to achieve contentment and potentially longevity by living in accordance with the Tao.¹⁶ Buddhism, in contrast, centers on the Four Noble Truths, focusing on the reality of suffering, its origin in craving, the possibility of its cessation, and the path to liberation through the Eightfold Path.⁵ Its view of nature emphasizes impermanence, interconnectedness, and emptiness, while its concept of self is characterized by Anatta (non-self).⁵ The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to attain Nirvana, escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth.²⁷ Confucianism, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with social harmony and ethical conduct within a hierarchical framework.⁹ It views nature as a moral order (Tian) and defines the self in terms of social roles and relationships, emphasizing self-cultivation to become a virtuous Junzi.⁹ The purpose of life in Confucianism is to contribute to a harmonious society through moral behavior and the fulfillment of social responsibilities.²

These distinct approaches extend to their views on social order, governance, and ethics. Taoism favors minimal intervention and natural living ⁶⁰, Buddhism emphasizes personal ethics and the monastic community ⁷, and Confucianism advocates for a structured society led by virtuous individuals.⁹ Their understanding of suffering also differs: Taoism sees it as a deviation from the Tao ²³, Buddhism as inherent to existence due to craving ³⁷, and Confucianism as arising from a lack of virtue and social disorder.² Finally, their ultimate spiritual attainments vary: oneness with the Tao in Taoism ²³, Nirvana in Buddhism ²⁷, and Sagehood in Confucianism.⁹ Despite these differences, the historical interactions between these three traditions have led to mutual influence and syncretism, enriching the spiritual and philosophical landscape of East Asia. Understanding their distinct perspectives offers valuable insights into the diverse ways humans have sought meaning and fulfillment throughout history.

引用的著作

1. Understanding the Principles of Taoism: A Beginner’s Guide – Taoist Wellness Online, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistwellness.online/blog/understanding-the-principles-of-taoism-a-beginner-s-guide
2. Confucianism Beliefs and Holidays – Diversity Resources, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.diversityresources.com/confucianism-beliefs-and-holidays/
3. Core values and beliefs of Confucianism – Britannica, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/summary/Confucianism
4. Taoism – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism
5. Buddhism: Basic Beliefs – URI.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.uri.org/kids/world-religions/buddhist-beliefs
6. Buddhism | Definition, Beliefs, Origin, Systems, & Practice | Britannica, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism
7. Buddhism – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism
8. Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism – Students of History, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.studentsofhistory.com/confucianism-daoism-buddhism
9. Confucianism – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism
10. Taoism Beliefs and Holidays – Diversity Resources, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.diversityresources.com/taoism-beliefs-and-holidays/
11. Taoism and Confucianism | Introduction to Sociology – Lumen Learning, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontosociology/chapter/taoism-and-confucianism/
12. Impact of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism – CSST, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， http://www.csstoday.com/Item/1573.aspx
13. Explain Taoism to Me in the Simplest Possible Way – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/zo54c2/explain_taoism_to_me_in_the_simplest_possible_way/
14. Taoism – Chinese Customs and Beliefs – Nations Online, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/Chinese_Customs/taoism.htm
15. Concepts within Taoism – BBC, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/concepts.shtml
16. Taoist Beliefs – Singapore Taoist Federation, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistfederation.org.sg/en/taoist-beliefs/
17. Taoism | Definition, Origin, Philosophy, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taoism
18. Taoist Principles to Know for Religions of Asia – Fiveable, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://fiveable.me/lists/taoist-principles
19. The Three Treasures of Taoism: Key Virtues (Jewels) To Master – The Joy Within, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://thejoywithin.org/spirituality/taoist-beliefs-3-jewels-of-taoism
20. Commusings: Three Principles of the Tao by Alan Watts – One Commune, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.onecommune.com/blog/commusings-three-principles-of-the-tao-alan-watts
21. What are the 3 main beliefs of Taoism? | Philosophy – YouTube, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w8nqv9zNqgU
22. Taoism: 6 Key Concepts From The Ancient Philosophy of Daoism – Taoist Wellness Online, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistwellness.online/blog/taoism-6-key-concepts-from-the-ancient-philosophy
23. Taoism – Tao.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://tao.org/tao/taoism/
24. Taoist Principles, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://chippit.tripod.com/taoist_principles.html
25. TAOIST BELIEFS – Facts and Details, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat3/sub10/item91.html
26. What’s the most fundamental idea or concept in Taoism? – Quora, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-most-fundamental-idea-or-concept-in-Taoism
27. Introduction to Buddhism | FSI – SPICE – Stanford, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/introduction_to_buddhism
28. Basics of Buddhism – PBS, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.pbs.org/edens/thailand/buddhism.htm
29. Beginner’s Guide to Buddhism: Understanding Its Core Principles – Awakened Mom Life, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://awakenedmomlife.com/blog/beginners-guide-to-principles-of-buddhism/
30. Four Noble Truths – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths
31. Buddhist beliefs and how they differ – Buddhist beliefs – Edexcel – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – Edexcel – BBC Bitesize, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zf8g4qt/revision/1
32. www.pbs.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.pbs.org/edens/thailand/buddhism.htm#:~:text=The%20Four%20Noble%20Truths%20comprise,to%20the%20end%20of%20suffering.
33. Basic Buddhist Concepts – Mountain Rain Zen Community, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， http://www.mountainrainzen.org/resources/basic-buddhist-concepts
34. What are the basic/main concepts of Buddhism for you? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/vmm972/what_are_the_basicmain_concepts_of_buddhism_for/
35. How does Taoism differ from Buddhism? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1c5fdlf/how_does_taoism_differ_from_buddhism/
36. What Are the Core Beliefs of Buddhism? – Mystik River, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://mystikriver.com.au/blogs/news/what-are-the-core-beliefs-of-buddhism
37. A Five Minute Introduction – buddhanet.net, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/5minbud/
38. The Buddhist Core Values and Perspectives for Protection Challenges – UNHCR, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/50be10cb9.pdf
39. What are the core beliefs of Buddhism? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/vvhpcy/what_are_the_core_beliefs_of_buddhism/
40. Can anyone give me a quick summary of the main points of the Buddhist philosophy? : r/Buddhism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/rlr18q/can_anyone_give_me_a_quick_summary_of_the_main/
41. 8 Major Differences Between Buddhism and Taoism Beliefs …, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://memorialfuneral.com.sg/blog/8-major-differences-between-buddhism-and-taoism-beliefs/
42. Taoism vs Buddhism: The Profound Tao-Buddha Connection, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistwellness.online/blog/taoism-vs-buddhism
43. 3 Major Differences Between Some Buddhist and Taoist Beliefs, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.1stopbuddhistfuneralservices.com.sg/3-major-differences-between-buddhist-and-taoist-beliefs/
44. Exploring the Key Beliefs of Confucianism – Hatching Dragons, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.hatching-dragons.com/en-gb/blog/exploring-the-key-beliefs-of-confucianism
45. “CONFUCIUS ON THE FIVE CONSTANT VIRTUES” – PhilArchive, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philarchive.org/archive/WAHCOT-2
46. Understanding the Principles of Confucianism – Aura Health, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.aurahealth.io/blog/understanding-the-principles-of-confucianism
47. Core principles of Confucianism and their literary expressions | Intro to Premodern Chinese Literature Class Notes | Fiveable, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://library.fiveable.me/introduction-to-premodern-chinese-literature-and-culture/unit-4/core-principles-confucianism-literary-expressions/study-guide/xOV7qFiqdoYHJt0B
48. The Main Concepts of Confucianism – Philosophy Home Page, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philosophy.lander.edu/oriental/main.html
49. Cultural Beliefs and Practices: Role of Confucianism – Geriatrics, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/chinese/fund/beliefs.html
50. Confucianism beliefs – Times of India, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/common-view/confucianism-beliefs-23417/
51. en.wikipedia.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism#:~:text=Confucianism%20emphasizes%20virtue%20through%20self,%2C%20and%20xin%20(sincerity).
52. Confucian Canon – Cult of Confucius, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/culttemp/sitepages/keyterms.html
53. Rise of Confucianism and Taoism | Religions of Asia Class Notes – Fiveable, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://library.fiveable.me/religions-of-asia/unit-1/rise-confucianism-taoism/study-guide/iubfbPJNtiE2hWOe
54. The Definition Of Confucianism And Its Principles – Free Essay Example – Edubirdie, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://hub.edubirdie.com/examples/the-definition-of-confucianism-and-its-principles/
55. Confucianism – Asia Society, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://asiasociety.org/education/confucianism
56. How to Establish Social Order? Three Early Chinese Answers – 1000-Word Philosophy, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2018/07/09/how-to-establish-social-order/
57. Confucianism – URI.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.uri.org/kids/world-religions/confucianism
58. Confucianism | Kinnu, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://kinnu.xyz/kinnuverse/philosophy/world-religions/confucianism/
59. Introduction to Confucian Thought – Asia for Educators – Columbia University, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000bce_confucius_intro.htm
60. Taoism vs Confucianism: Key Differences Between Them – Taoist Wellness Online, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistwellness.online/blog/taoism-vs-confucianism
61. 9e. Taoism and Confucianism — Ancient Philosophies – USHistory.org, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.ushistory.org/civ/9e.asp
62. 2. Confucianism, Taoism and Chinese folk religions – Pew Research Center, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2023/08/30/confucianism-taoism-and-chinese-folk-religions/
63. Ethics – Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism | Britannica, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy/China
64. Fundamental Difference between Taoism and Buddhism | Serendip Studio, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/fundamental-difference-between-taoism-and-buddhism
65. Dharma and the Tao: how Buddhism and Daoism have influenced …, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://buddhaweekly.com/dharma-and-the-tao-how-buddhism-and-daoism-have-influenced-each-other-why-zen-and-taoism-can-be-compliementary/
66. What is the Difference Between Daoism and Confucianism …, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.britannica.com/story/what-is-the-difference-between-daoism-and-confucianism
67. ELI5: basic beliefs of Taoism : r/explainlikeimfive – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1twhai/eli5_basic_beliefs_of_taoism/
68. What are the main differences and similarities of Buddhism and Taoism? – Quora, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-main-differences-and-similarities-of-Buddhism-and-Taoism
69. What is the difference between The one, Buddha-nature, Brahman and Tao?, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/6331/what-is-the-difference-between-the-one-buddha-nature-brahman-and-tao
70. The 4 Fundamental Principles of Buddhism Known as “The Four Seals” – Always Well Within, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.alwayswellwithin.com/blog/2013/01/06/true-happiness-right-view
71. Confucianism and Buddhism: The Most Tolerant World Views – Global China Insights, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.globalchinainsights.nl/articles/confucianism-and-buddhism-the-most-tolerant-world-views
72. What Are You Reading…On Buddhism and Confucianism | Blog of the APA, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/02/12/what-are-you-reading-on-buddhism-and-confucianism/
73. Buddhism vs. Taoism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/16p2q7/buddhism_vs_taoism/
74. Buddhism, Confucianism, and Western Conceptions of Personal Autonomy – EngagedScholarship@CSU, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=tdr
75. What is the difference between Confucianism, Daoism, and … – Quora, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-Confucianism-Daoism-and-Shintoism-in-terms-of-morality
76. Buddhism vs. Confucianism. : r/askphilosophy – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/5635le/buddhism_vs_confucianism/
77. 13 Principles For Practicing Taoism – The Mindful Stoic, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://mindfulstoic.net/13-principles-for-practicing-taoism/
78. Taoism 101: Introduction to the Tao, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://personaltao.com/taoism/taoism-101/
79. The Taiji Model of Self II: Developing Self Models and Self-Cultivation Theories Based on the Chinese Cultural Traditions of Taoism and Buddhism – Frontiers, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.540074/full
80. Confucius’s Philosophy: Key Concepts – PHILO-notes, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philonotes.com/2023/04/confuciuss-philosophy-key-concepts
81. Buddhist and Confucian Attitudes toward Life: A Comparative Study – Urban Dharma, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://urbandharma.org/pdf16/Buddhist_and_Confucian_Attitude.pdf
82. What Taoism is about in a practical sense (apart from its theoretical and philosophical background)? – Quora, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.quora.com/What-Taoism-is-about-in-a-practical-sense-apart-from-its-theoretical-and-philosophical-background
83. Crisis, Purpose of Life and Taoism – Finding Meaning in Life Again – Personal Tao, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://personaltao.com/midlife-crisis/purpose-of-life/
84. Confucianism and Taoism – Peoples in Middle and Southeast China＿Virtual Science Museum of China, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， http://www.kepu.net.cn/english/nationalitymse/han/200312240027.html
85. Distribution Features of Confucianism and Buddhism Essay – PhilArchive, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philarchive.org/archive/PANDFO
86. can one be buddhist and confucian? : r/Buddhism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1fi8s6z/can_one_be_buddhist_and_confucian/
87. Basic Concepts of Tibetan Buddhism – Brown University Library, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://library.brown.edu/cds/BuddhistTempleArt/buddhism3.html
88. Suffering, Evil, and the Emotions – PhilArchive, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://philarchive.org/archive/NELSEA-3
89. Three teachings – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_teachings
90. Conflict between Buddhism and Confucianism – E-Learning Programs, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://elearning.thanhsiang.org/node/2400
91. Buddhism and Taoism: the mental debate – Japan and Korea: Life, Language and Religion, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， http://japanlifeandreligion.com/2010/07/18/buddhism-and-taoism-the-mental-debate/
92. Five precepts (Taoism) – Wikipedia, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_precepts_(Taoism)
93. Confucianism and Buddhism | Encyclopedia.com, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/confucianism-and-buddhism
94. Is Buddhism compatible with Confucianism? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1j76bj5/is_buddhism_compatible_with_confucianism/
95. Most of the people I talk to confuse the two. What are the main differences between Taoism and Confucianism? – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/ywe88g/most_of_the_people_i_talk_to_confuse_the_two_what/
96. Chinese Ethics – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-chinese/
97. A Summary of the Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist Views on Life …, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://ccs.city/en/chinese-philosophers/summary
98. Illuminating the Mind to See One’s Nature: The Root of Taoist Inner Practice, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.shambhala.com/illuminating-the-mind-to-see-ones-nature-the-root-of-taoist-inner-practice/
99. Reconciling Taoism and Confucianism – University of Hawaii System, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， http://www2.hawaii.edu/~sford/research/taoism/index.html
100. www.taoistwellness.online, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.taoistwellness.online/blog/taoism-6-key-concepts-from-the-ancient-philosophy#:~:text=Taoism%2C%20often%20referred%20to%20as,individuals%20toward%20a%20purposeful%20life.
101. The Tao of Buddha | Lion’s Roar, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.lionsroar.com/the-tao-of-buddha/
102. How Taoism and Zen Buddhism Are Connected (Alan Watts) | Shortform Books, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.shortform.com/blog/taoism-and-zen/
103. I keep reading that Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism are the same thing – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/1e8n6t/i_keep_reading_that_buddhism_taoism_and/
104. Taoist vs Confucianist : r/taoism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/x1j1ro/taoist_vs_confucianist/
105. (PDF) The Concept of God; A Comparative Study of Buddhism and Confucianism, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377701725_The_Concept_of_God_A_Comparative_Study_of_Buddhism_and_Confucianism
106. Can you be Confucian and Taoist? : r/taoism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/138i169/can_you_be_confucian_and_taoist/
107. Taoism & Confucianism – Reddit, 访问时间为 五月 14, 2025， https://www.reddit.com/r/taoism/comments/1ey8uaf/taoism_confucianism/